The relationship between human capital and environmental destruction: the case of European countries
Keywords:
ecological footprint, environment, human capital, economic growth, European countries.
Abstract
Purpose. This study aims to examine the relationship between human capital and environmental destruction.
Methodology / approach. The analysis includes 56 years between 1961 and 2017 for 14 selected European countries. In the model established for the variables, the ecological footprint is used as the dependent variable, human capital and real national income per capita are used as independent variables. To select the appropriate test method in the analysis, we used the CADF panel unit root test, which considers the cross-sectional dependence. The Pooled Mean Group was used for model estimation.
Results. In the study, it is emphasized that human capital has an important contribution to reducing the ecological footprint as an indicator of environmental pollution. According to the results of the PMG co-integration analysis, the increase in human capital reduces the ecological footprint in European countries. Since the European countries are developed ones, the availability of a good educational infrastructure is an important factor. It increases human capital. In addition, the high level of education and welfare in European countries is effective in increasing the number of environmentally sensitive individuals. This increases the environmental quality and therefore is an important factor in reducing the ecological footprint.
Originality / scientific novelty. There are no studies in the literature examining the relationship between human capital and the ecological footprint of European countries. Therefore, this study closes a gap in the literature and takes its originality from the relationship between human capital and ecological footprint in European countries.
Practical value / implications. The practical value of the results is that human capital reduces the ecological footprint by protecting natural resources, exhibiting a more environmentally friendly behavior, and realizing production that will minimize the damage to the environment.
References
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2. Ahmed, Z., Zafar, M. W., & Sajid, A. (2020b). Linking urbanization, human capital, and ecological footprint in G7 countries: an empirical analysis. Sustainable Cities and Society, 55, 102064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102064.
3. Ahmed, Z., Wang, Z., Mahmood, F., Hafeez, M., & Ali, N. (2019). Does globalization increase the ecological footprint? Empirical evidence from Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 18565–18582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05224-9.
4. Ahmed, Z., & Wang, Z. (2019). Investigating the impact of human capital on the ecological footprint in India: an empirical analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 26782–26796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05911-7.
5. Alika, I. J., & Aibieyi, S. (2014). Human capital: definitions, approaches, and management dynamics. Journal of Business Administration and Education, 5(1), 55–78. Available at: http://www.infinitypress.info/index.php/jbae/article/viewFile/352/283.
6. Al-Mulali, U., Weng-Wai, C., Sheau-Ting, L., & Mohammed, A. H. (2014). Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by utilizing the ecological footprint as an indicator of environmental degradation. Ecological Indicators, 48, 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.08.029.
7. Bano, S., Zhao, Y., Ahmad, A., Wang, S., & Liu, Y. (2018). Identifying the impacts of human capital on carbon emissions in Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.008.
8. Becker, G. S. (1964). Human Capital. New York, Columbia University Press.
9. Breusch, T. S., & Pagan, A. R. (1980). The Lagrange multiplier test and its application to model specifications in econometrics. Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297111.
10. Cantillon, P. (1755). Essays on the nature of commerce in general. New York, Routledge.
11. Chen, Y., Lee, C. C., & Chen, M. (2021). Ecological footprint, human capital, and urbanization. Energy & Environment, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X211008610.
12. Çınar, S. (2011). Gelir ve CO2 emisyonu ilişkisi: panel birim kök ve eşbütünleşme testi. Uludağ Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 30(2), 71–83. Available at: https://kutuphane.dogus.edu.tr/mvt/pdf.php?pdf=0013221&lng=0.
13. Danish, H. S., Baloch, M. A., Mahmood, N., & Zhang, J. (2019). Linking economic growth and ecological footprint through human capital and biocapacity. Sustainable Cities and Society, 47, 101516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101516.
14. Engel, E. (1883). Der Werth Des Menschen. Berlin, Verlag von Leonhard Simion.
15. El Alaoui, A. (2017). What is the relationship between environmental quality, economic growth, and free trade? International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 3(1), 124–144. https://doi.org/10.24289/ijsser.283594.
16. Erkişi, K., & Ceyhan, T. (2020). İktisadi Büyüme ve Gelir Dağılımı Adaleti İlişkisi: Bir Panel Veri Analizi. Sosyoekonomi, 28(43), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2020.01.11.
17. Farr, W. (1853). The income and property tax. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 16(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/2338101.
18. Folloni, G., & Vittadini, G. (2010). Human capıtal measurement: a survey. Journal of Economic Surveys, 24(2), 248–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2009.00614.x.
19. Hofflander, A. E. (1966). The human life value: an historical perspective. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 33(3), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.2307/250983.
20. Kayan, A. (2018). Çevre sorunlarına eğitimle farkındalık yaratma. Journal of Awareness, 3(spec. is.), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.26809/joa.2018548658.
21. Kiker, B. F. (1966). The historical roots of the concept of human capital. Journal of Political Economy, 74(5), 481–499. https://doi.org/10.1086/259201.
22. Kitzes, J., Peller, A., Goldfinger, S., & Wackernagel, M. (2007). Current methods for calculating national ecological footprint accounts. Science for Environment & Sustainable Society, 4(1), 1–9. Available at: https://www.shiga-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/kitzes2007.pdf.
23. Koçbulut, Ö., & Barış, S. (2016). Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde ihracat ve doğrudan yabancı yatırımların kadın istihdamı üzerindeki etkisi: panel veri analizi. Aydın İktisat Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(2), 22–39. Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/aifd/issue/28229/299721.
24. Kucharčíkova, A. (2011). Human capital- definitions and approaches. Human Resources Management &Ergonomics, 5(2), 60–70. Available at: https://frcatel.fri.uniza.sk/hrme/files/2011/2011_2_05.pdf.
25. Langnel, Z., Amegavi, G. B., Donkor, P., & Mensah, C. K. (2021). Income inequality, human capital, natural resource abundance, and ecological footprint in ECOWAS member countries. Resource Policy, 74, 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102255.
26. Laroche, M., Merette, M., & Ruggeri G. C. (1999). On the concept and dimensions of human capital in a knowledge-based economy context. Canadian Public Policy, 25(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.2307/3551403.
27. Liu, G., & Fraumeni, B. (2016). Measuring human capital: country experiences and international initiatives. In D. Jorgenson, K. Fukao & M. Timmer (Eds), The World Economy: Growth or Stagnation? (pp. 429–468). Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316534502.012.
28. Liu, G., & Fraumeni, B. M. (2020). A brief introduction to human capital measures. (Working Paper No. 27561). National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at: https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w27561/w27561.pdf.
29. Machlup, F. (1982). Lecture on the theory of human capital, lectures in development economics, 1. Islamabad, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics. Available at: https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/2274.
30. Mahmood, N., Wang, Z., & Hassan, S. T. (2019). Renewable energy, economic growth, human capital, and CO2 emission: an empirical analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 20619–20630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05387-5.
31. Majeed, M. T., & Mazhar, M. (2020). Reexamination of environmental Kuznets curve for ecological footprint: the role of biocapacity, human capital, and trade. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences, 14(1), 202–254. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3580586.
32. Meena, A. K., & Yadav, T. K. (2019). What are Ecological Footprint and Why is it Important? Agrobios. A monthly Magazine of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 18(1), 25–26. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10830.51521/1.
33. Mill, J. S. (1848). Principles of political economy, with some of their applications to social philosophy, part II. London. Parker and Son. Available at: https://books.google.co.mz/books?id=HINIAAAAYAAJ&hl=pt-PT&lr=.
34. Mincer, J. (1974). Schooling, experience and earnings. New York, Columbia University Press. Available at: https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/schooling-experience-and-earnings.
35. Nathaniel, S. P. (2021). Biocapacity, human capital, and ecological footprint in G7 countries: the moderation role of urbanization and necessary lessons for emerging economies. Energy, Ecology and Environment, 6(5), 435–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00197-9.
36. Nathaniel, S. P., Bekun, F. V., & Faizulayev, A. (2021a). Modelling the impact of energy consumption, natural resources, and urbanization on the ecological footprint in South Africa: assessing the moderating role of human capital. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 11(3), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.11099.
37. Nathaniel, S. P., Yalçiner, K., & Bekun, F. V. (2021b). Assessing the environmental sustainability corridor: linking natural resources, renewable energy, human capital, and ecological footprint in BRICS. Resources Policy, 70, 101924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101924.
38. Nicholson, J. S. (1981). The living capital of the United Kingdom. The Economic Journal, 1(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/2955843.
39. OECD (2001). The well-being of nations: the role of human and social capital. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264189515-en.
40. Sapci, O., & Shogren, J. F. (2018). Environmental quality, human capital, and growth. Journal of Envıronmental Economıcs and Polıcy, 7(2), 184–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/21606544.2017.1384403.
41. Sonu, G., Binod, P., & Sonika, G. R. (2011). Ecological footprint: a tool for measuring sustainable development. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(1), 140–144. https://doi.org/10.6088/ijes.00202010015.
42. Ulucak, R., & Lin, D. (2017). Persistence of policy shocks to the ecological footprint of the USA. Ecological Indicators, 80, 337–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.05.020.
43. Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross-section dependence in panels (Working Paper No. 1229). University of Southern California. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.572504.
44. Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test ın the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2), 265–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951.
45. Pesaran, M. H., & Yamagata, T. (2008). Testing slope homogeneity in large panels. Journal of Econometrics, 142(1), 50–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.010.
46. Pesaran, M. H., Ullah, A., & Yamagata, T. (2008). A bias-adjusted LM test of error cross-section independence. The Econometrics Journal, 11(1), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1368-423X.2007.00227.x.
47. Petty, W. (1690). Political arithmetic, or a discourse concerning the extent and value of lands, people, buildings. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
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Published
2022-03-20
How to Cite
Yildiz, T., Arslan, Ünal, & Sağlam Çeliköz, Y. (2022). The relationship between human capital and environmental destruction: the case of European countries. Agricultural and Resource Economics: International Scientific E-Journal, 8(1), 187-203. https://doi.org/10.51599/are.2022.08.01.10
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